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Determining Genetic Influence on Personality Assignment
5.10: Problems and Prospects for the Motive Perspective 65 Summary: The Motive Perspective 65
6: Genetics, Evolution, and Personality 67 6.1: Determining Genetic Influence on Personality 67
Box 6.1 Early Biological Views: Physique and Personality 68
6.1.1: Twin Study Method 68 6.1.2: Adoption Research 69
6.2: What Personality Qualities Are Genetically Influenced? 69
6.2.1: Temperaments 69 6.2.2: More Recent Views of Temperaments 70 6.2.3: Inheritance of Traits 70 6.2.4: Temperaments and the Five-Factor Model 70 6.2.5: How Distinct Are the Genetics of Other
Qualities? 71 6.2.6: Environmental Influences 71
6.3: Complications in Behavioral Genetics 72 6.3.1: Heritability Varies with the Environment 72 6.3.2: Correlations between Genetic and
Environmental Influences 72
6.4: Molecular Genetics and Genomics 73 6.4.1: Gene-by-Environment Interactions 74 6.4.2: Environmental Effects on Gene
Expression 74
6.5: Evolution and Human Behavior 75 6.5.1: Sociobiology and Evolutionary Psychology 75
Box 6.2 Theoretical Issue: Universal Adaptations and Why There Are Individual Differences 75
6.5.2: Genetic Similarity and Attraction 76 6.5.3: Avoidance of Incest 77 6.5.4: Mate Selection and Competition for Mates 77 6.5.5: Mate Retention and Other Issues 79 6.5.6: Aggression and the Young Male Syndrome 80
6.6: Assessment from the Genetic and Evolutionary Perspective 81
6.7: Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change, from the Genetic and Evolutionary Perspective 81
6.7.1: Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder 81
Box 6.3 Living in a Postgenomic World 81 6.7.2: Substance Use and Antisocial Behavior 82 6.7.3: Evolution and Problems in Behavior 83 6.7.4: How Much Behavior Change Is Possible? 83
6.8: Problems and Prospects for the Genetic and Evolutionary Perspective 83 Summary: Genetics, Evolution, and Personality 84
7: Biological Processes and Personality 86 7.1: Eysenck’s Early Views on Brain Functions 87
7.2: Incentive Approach System 87
Contents ix
8.3.1: Id 107 8.3.2: Ego 107 8.3.3: Superego 108 8.3.4: Balancing the Forces 108
8.4: The Drives of Personality 109
Box 8.2 Distortion in Psychoanalytic Ideas by Translation and Cultural Distance 109
8.4.1: Life and Death Instincts 110 8.4.2: Catharsis 110
8.5: Anxiety and Mechanisms of Defense 111 8.5.1: Repression 111
Box 8.3 Unintended Effects of Thought Suppression 112
8.5.2: Denial 112 8.5.3: Projection 112 8.5.4: Rationalization and Intellectualization 113 8.5.5: Displacement and Sublimation 113 8.5.6: Research on Defenses 114
8.6: Psychosexual Development 114 8.6.1: The Oral Stage 114 8.6.2: The Anal Stage 115 8.6.3: The Phallic Stage 116
Box 8.4 The Theorist and the Theory: Freud’s Own Oedipal Crisis 117
8.6.4: The Latency Period 117 8.6.5: The Genital Stage 117
8.7: Exposing the Unconscious 117 8.7.1: The Psychopathology of Everyday Life 118 8.7.2: Dreams 119
8.8: Assessment from the Psychoanalytic Perspective 119
8.9: Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change, from the Psychoanalytic Perspective 120
8.9.1: Origins of Problems 120 8.9.2: Behavior Change 120
Box 8.5 Repression, Disclosure, and Physical Health 121
8.9.3: Does Psychoanalytic Therapy Work? 121
8.10: Problems and Prospects for the Psychoanalytic Perspective 122 Summary: The Psychoanalytic Perspective 123
9: Psychosocial Theories 125 9.1: Object Relations Theories 125
Box 9.1 Ego Psychology 126 9.1.1: Self Psychology 127
9.2: Attachment Theory and Personality 127 9.2.1: Attachment Patterns in Adults 129 9.2.2: How Many Patterns? 129
Box 9.2 How Do You Measure Adult Attachment? 130
9.2.3: Stability and Specificity 130 9.2.4: Other Reflections of Adult Attachment 131
7.2.1: Behavioral Approach 87 7.2.2: More Issues in Approach 88 7.2.3: Neurotransmitters and the Approach
System 88
7.3: Behavioral Avoidance, or Withdrawal, System 89 7.3.1: Neurotransmitters and the Avoidance
System 90
7.4: Relating Approach and Avoidance Systems to Traits and Temperaments 90
7.4.1: The Role of Sociability 90 7.4.2: The Role of Impulsivity 91
7.5: Sensation Seeking, Constraint, and Effortful Control 91
7.5.1: Sensation Seeking 91 7.5.2: Relating Sensation Seeking to Traits and
Temperaments 92 7.5.3: Another Determinant of Impulse
and Restraint 92 7.5.4: Neurotransmitters and Impulse versus
Constraint 93
Box 7.1 Research Question: How Do You Measure Neurotransmitter Function? 93
7.6: Hormones and Personality 94 7.6.1: Hormones, the Body, and the Brain 94 7.6.2: Early Hormonal Exposure and
Behavior 95 7.6.3: Testosterone and Adult Personality 96
Box 7.2 Steroids: An Unintended Path to Aggression 97
7.6.4: Cycle of Testosterone and Action 98 7.6.5: Testosterone, Dominance, and
Evolutionary Psychology 98 7.6.6: Responding to Stress 99
7.7: Assessment from the Biological Process Perspective 100
7.7.1: Electroencephalograms 100 7.7.2: Neuroimaging 100
7.8: Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change, from the Biological Process Perspective 101
7.8.1: Biological Bases of Anxiety and Depression 101
7.8.2: Biological Bases of Antisocial Personality 101
7.8.3: Biological Therapies 102
7.9: Problems and Prospects for the Biological Process Perspective 103 Summary: Biological Processes and Personality 103
8: The Psychoanalytic Perspective 105 Box 8.1 Was Freud Really the Sole Creator of Psychoanalysis? 106
8.1: Basic Themes 106
8.2: The Topographical Model of the Mind 106
8.3: The Structural Model of Personality 107
9.2.5: Attachment Patterns and the Five-Factor Model 132
Box 9.3 How Impactful Is Early Childhood Adversity? 133
9.3: Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development 133 9.3.1: Ego Identity, Competence, and the
Experience of Crisis 133 9.3.2: Infancy 134 9.3.3: Early Childhood 135 9.3.4: Preschool 135 9.3.5: School Age 136 9.3.6: Adolescence 136
Box 9.4 The Theorist and the Theory: Erikson’s Lifelong Search for Identity 137
9.3.7: Young Adulthood 137 9.3.8: Adulthood 138 9.3.9: Old Age 139 9.3.10: The Epigenetic Principle 139 9.3.11: Identity as Life Story 139 9.3.12: Linking Erikson’s Theory to
Other Psychosocial Theories 140
9.4: Assessment from the Psychosocial Perspective 140 9.4.1: Object Relations, Attachment, and the
Focus of Assessment 140 9.4.2: Play in Assessment 140
9.5: Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change, from the Psychosocial Perspective 141
9.5.1: Narcissism as a Disorder of Personality 141 9.5.2: Attachment and Depression 141 9.5.3: Behavior Change 141
9.6: Problems and Prospects for the Psychosocial Perspective 142 Summary: Psychosocial Theories 142
10: The Learning Perspective 144 10.1: Classical Conditioning 144
10.1.1: Basic Elements 145 10.1.2: Discrimination, Generalization, and
Extinction in Classical Conditioning 146
Box 10.1 What’s Going on in Classical Conditioning? 146
10.1.3: Emotional Conditioning 147
Box 10.2 Classical Conditioning and Attitudes 148
10.2: Instrumental Conditioning 148 10.2.1: The Law of Effect 148 10.2.2: Reinforcement and Punishment 149 10.2.3: Discrimination, Generalization, and
Extinction in Instrumental Conditioning 149 10.2.4: Schedules of Reinforcement 150 10.2.5: Reinforcement of Qualities of Behavior 151
10.3: Social and Cognitive Variations 151 10.3.1: Social Reinforcement 151 10.3.2: Vicarious Emotional Arousal 152 10.3.3: Vicarious Reinforcement 152
Box 10.3 Modeling and Delay of Gratification 153 10.3.4: What Really Is Reinforcement? 153 10.3.5: Efficacy Expectancies 153 10.3.6: Role of Awareness 154
10.4: Observational Learning 154 10.4.1: Attention and Retention 154 10.4.2: Production 155 10.4.3: Acquisition versus Performance 155
10.5: Modeling of Aggression and the Issue of Media Violence 156
10.6: Assessment from the Learning Perspective 157 10.6.1: Conditioning-Based Approaches 157 10.6.2: Social–Cognitive Approaches 157
10.7: Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change, from the Learning Perspective 158
10.7.1: Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses 158
10.7.2: Conditioning and Context 158 10.7.3: Instrumental Conditioning and
Maladaptive Behaviors 159 10.7.4: Social–Cognitive Approaches 159 10.7.5: Modeling-Based Therapy for Skill Deficits 160 10.7.6: Modeling and Responses to Fear 160 10.7.7: Therapeutic Changes in Efficacy
Expectancy 161
10.8: Problems and Prospects for the Learning Perspective 161 Summary: The Learning Perspective 162
11: Self-Actualization and Self-Determination 164
11.1: Self-Actualization 165 11.1.1: The Need for Positive Regard 165 11.1.2: Contingent Self-Worth 166
11.2: Self-Determination 166 11.2.1: Introjection and Identification 167 11.2.2: Need for Relatedness 168 11.2.3: Self-Concordance 168 11.2.4: Free Will 168
11.3: The Self and Processes of Defense 169
Box 11.1 How Can You Manage Two Kinds of Congruence Simultaneously? 169
11.3.1: Incongruity, Disorganization, and Defense 170 11.3.2: Self-Esteem Maintenance and Enhancement 170 11.3.3: Self-Handicapping 170 11.3.4: Stereotype Threat 171
11.4: Self-Actualization and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives 171
Box 11.2 The Theorist and the Theory: Abraham Maslow’s Focus on the Positive 172
11.4.1: Characteristics of Frequent Self-Actualizers 173 11.4.2: Peak Experiences 174
11.5: Existential Psychology 174
x Contents
11.5.1: The Existential Dilemma 175 11.5.2: Emptiness 175 11.5.3: Terror Management 175
11.6: Assessment from the Self-Actualization and Self-Determination Perspective 177
11.6.1: Interviews in Assessment 177
Box 11.3 Self-Actualization and Your Life 177 11.6.2: Measuring the Self-Concept by Q-Sort 178 11.6.3: Measuring Self-Actualization 178 11.6.4: Measuring Self-Determination
and Control 178
11.7: Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change, from the Self-Actualization and Self-Determination Perspective 179
11.7.1: Client-Centered Therapy 179 11.7.2: Beyond Therapy to Personal Growth 180
11.8: Problems and Prospects for the Self-Actualization and Self-Determination Perspective 180 Summary: Self-Actualization and Self-Determination 181
12: The Cognitive Perspective 183 Box 12.1 Personal Construct Theory: Foreshadowing the Cognitive Perspective 184
12.1: Representing Your Experience of the World 184 12.1.1: Schemas and Their Development 184 12.1.2: Effects of Schemas 185 12.1.3: Semantic Memory, Episodic Memory,
Scripts, and Procedural Knowledge 185 12.1.4: Socially Relevant Schemas 186 12.1.5: Self-Schemas 186 12.1.6: Entity versus Incremental Mindsets 187 12.1.7: Attribution 187
12.2: Activation of Memories 188 12.2.1: Priming and the Use of Information 189 12.2.2: Nonconscious Influences on Behavior 190
12.3: Connectionist Views of Mental Organization 190
Box 12.2 What’s in a Name? 191 12.3.1: Dual-Process Models 192
Box 12.3 Delay of Gratification: The Role of Cognitive Strategies 193
12.3.2: Explicit and Implicit Knowledge 194
12.4: Broader Views on Cognition and Personality 194
Box 12.4 The Theorist and the Theory: Mischel and His Mentors 195
12.4.1: Cognitive Person Variables 195 12.4.2: Personality as a Cognitive–Affective
Processing System 196
12.5: Assessment from the Cognitive Perspective 197 12.5.1: Think-Aloud, Experience Sampling,
and Self-Monitoring 197 12.5.2: Contextualized Assessment 197
12.6: Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change, from the Cognitive Perspective 198
12.6.1: Information-Processing Deficits 198
12.6.2: Depressive Self-Schemas 198 12.6.3: Cognitive Therapy 199
12.7: Problems and Prospects for the Cognitive Perspective 199 Summary: The Cognitive Perspective 200
RUBRIC |
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Excellent Quality 95-100%
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Introduction
45-41 points The background and significance of the problem and a clear statement of the research purpose is provided. The search history is mentioned. |
Literature Support 91-84 points The background and significance of the problem and a clear statement of the research purpose is provided. The search history is mentioned. |
Methodology 58-53 points Content is well-organized with headings for each slide and bulleted lists to group related material as needed. Use of font, color, graphics, effects, etc. to enhance readability and presentation content is excellent. Length requirements of 10 slides/pages or less is met. |
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Average Score 50-85% |
40-38 points More depth/detail for the background and significance is needed, or the research detail is not clear. No search history information is provided. |
83-76 points Review of relevant theoretical literature is evident, but there is little integration of studies into concepts related to problem. Review is partially focused and organized. Supporting and opposing research are included. Summary of information presented is included. Conclusion may not contain a biblical integration. |
52-49 points Content is somewhat organized, but no structure is apparent. The use of font, color, graphics, effects, etc. is occasionally detracting to the presentation content. Length requirements may not be met. |
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Poor Quality 0-45% |
37-1 points The background and/or significance are missing. No search history information is provided. |
75-1 points Review of relevant theoretical literature is evident, but there is no integration of studies into concepts related to problem. Review is partially focused and organized. Supporting and opposing research are not included in the summary of information presented. Conclusion does not contain a biblical integration. |
48-1 points There is no clear or logical organizational structure. No logical sequence is apparent. The use of font, color, graphics, effects etc. is often detracting to the presentation content. Length requirements may not be met |
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Determining Genetic Influence on Personality Assignment |
Determining Genetic Influence on Personality Assignment