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Instructions:
Framework of The Proposed MKVARL Method
Fig. 1 The framework of the proposed MKVARL method
Multimed Tools Appl (2016) 75:9169–9184 9173
3.1 Visual-auditory kernel canonical correlation analysis and mapping
Suppose Xn × p =(x1, x2, ⋅ ⋅⋅,xn) T and Yn × q =(y1, y2, ⋅ ⋅⋅,yn)
T are original low-level feature matri- ces of images and audio clips respectively, where n is the number of samples and p,q are the feature dimensions. Let φx(x) =(φx(x1),φx(x2), ⋅ ⋅⋅,φx(xn)) denote the transformed Hilbert space Hx for image feature matrix Xn × p, and φy(y) =(φy(y1),φy(y2), ⋅ ⋅⋅, φy(yn)) denote the trans- formed Hilbert space Hy for audio feature matrix Yn × q. Motivated by the canonical correlation analysis method, we hope to find two projection vectors wx(p × m) and wy(q × m), with which underlying correlations between Hx and Hy could be maximally maintained in the m-dimen- sional mutual subspace named as Isomorphic Visual-Auditory Subspace (IVA-Subspace). Let u=wx
Tφx(x) and v= wy Tφy(y) denote the IVA-Subspace mapping process, wx and wy can be
found by solving the following Lagrangian function:
L wx; wy; λx; λy � �
¼ E u−E uð Þð Þ v−E vð Þð Þ½ �−λx 2 E u−E uð Þ2 h i
λy 2 E v−E vð Þ2 h i
þ L0 ð1Þ
where L0 ¼ η2 wxk k 2 þ wy
�� ��2� � and η is a regularization constant. L0 is used because the dimensionalities of the Hilbert spaces are large. Equation (1) may lead to some nonsense projection vectors without L0. Based on the reproducing kernel theory [4, 18], we have:
wx ¼ X
i
αiφx xið Þ ; wy ¼ X
i
βiφy yið Þ ð2Þ
where αi,βi are weight parameters. Thus, we can rewrite u and v as:
u ¼ X
i
αiφx xið ÞTφx xð Þ ð3Þ
v ¼ X
i
βiφy yið ÞTφy yð Þ ð4Þ
Then u and v can be calculated by only inner products in Hilbert spaces. In practice, since we don’t need an explicit form of φ(x), we first determine kx that can be decomposed in the form of inner product. From Mercer theorem, the symmetric positive definite kernel kx can be decomposed into the inner product form. We define the kernel functions kx(xi,xj) and ky(yi, yj) as below:
kx xi; xj � �
¼ φx xið ÞT φx xj � �
; ky yi; yj � �
¼ φy yið ÞTφy yj � �
ð5Þ
The corresponding kernel matrices are (Kx)ij =kx(xi,xj) and (Ky)ij = ky(yi, xj). Furthermore, we can get
Mβ ¼ λLα; MTα ¼ λNβ ð6Þ
M ¼ 1 n KTx JKy; L ¼
1
n KTx JKx þ η1Kx; N ¼
1
n KTy JKy þ η2Ky; J ¼ I−
1
N llT ð7Þ
Based on Eq. (6), we can obtain
L−1MN−1MTα ¼ λ2α; N−1MTL−1Mβ ¼ λ2β ð8Þ
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Therefore, the visual-auditory kernel canonical correlation analysis and mapping process is as below:
3.2 Extension to multiple kernel visual-auditory analysis
As previously defined, Xn × p and Yn × q are original image feature matrix and audio feature matrix respectively. Let xi=(xi1,xi2, ⋅ ⋅⋅,xip)(xik∈R) and yi =(yi1,yi2, ⋅ ⋅⋅,yip)(yik∈R) denote visual feature vectors and auditory feature vectors respectively. Suppose Kx,y
d (d=1,2, ⋅⋅⋅,k), are k kernel functions, and each of them is associated with Hilbert space Hd. First, we map Xn × p and Yn × q into Hilbert spaces Id and Ad with the kernel function Kx,y
d . Then we calculate canonical correlation between each pair of image Hilbert space and audio Hilbert space, obtain the corresponding projection vectors wx and wy. Therefore, we transform the kernel matrices into the m-dimensional IVA-Subspace, where cross-media correlations between image and audio kernel features are remained.
We define xi d = (xi1
d ,xi2 d , ⋅ ⋅⋅, xim
d )(xij d = a+b× i, (a, b∈R)), which is obtained from the Hilbert
spaces Id, as the image feature vector in the IVA-Subspace. Also for audio representation, we have m-dimensional representations yi
d into polar coordinate representation:
xdij ¼ βi j; xdij ��� ���� �; βi j ¼ arctg b�a
� � ; xdij
��� ��� ¼ ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffia2 þ b2p ð9Þ We perform the same polar coordinate transformation on all the vectors in yi
d, and define the distance between image xi
d and audio yi d as:
dis xdi ; y d i
� � ¼ sqrt
Xm j¼1
xdij
��� ���2 þ ydij ��� ���2−2 � xdij
��� ��� � ydij ��� ��� � cos βi j−βi j�� ��
� ð10Þ
Thus, the similarity of a image xi and an audio yi is:
S xi; yið Þ ¼ Xk d¼1
ηddis x d i ; y
d i
� � ð11Þ
where ηd are the combination weights.
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Based on above analysis, we discuss how to enable cross-media retrieval under two situations: query example inside database and query example outside database. If the query example is outside the database, we use the method in our previous work to estimate its coordinates in the IVA-Subspace [39], and then we can measure the cross-media correlation with the same method the database samples use. Our MKVARL algorithm is described as below:
4 Experiments
4.1 Experimental setup
We conduct a set of experiments to evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm in cross-media retrieval. we use the Mean Average Precision (MAP) and top-k retrieval accuracy for performance evaluation. Since there is no benchmark cross-media database available to evaluate the proposed MKVARL approach, we collect an image-audio dataset crawled from websites, including Flickr, http://image.baidu.com, http://encarta.msn.com, http://www. animalbehaviorarchive.org, etc. And some other audio clips are extracted from movies. The collected datasets consist of 10 semantic categories, such as bird, car, dog, violin, etc.. In each category there are 100 images and 70 audio clips. We randomly select 60 images and 60 audio
9176 Multimed Tools Appl (2016) 75:9169–9184
http://www.animalbehaviorarchive.org/
http://www.animalbehaviorarchive.org/
clips from each category as training data, and the rest are used as new media objects to test the performance of mapping new media objects into the IVA-Subspace.
The extracted visual features include Color Histogram (in HSV space), Edge Histogram, Texture feature based on Gray-level co-occurrence matrix, Speeded Up Robust Features (SURF) and GIST. Auditory features are made up of Centroid, Rolloff, Spectral Flux, and Root Mean Square. We concatenate different visual features into high-dimensional vectors as input. Since audio is a kind of time series data, the dimensionalities of auditory feature vectors are inconsistent. We employ Fuzzy Clustering on auditory features in preprocessing to get isomorphic audio feature indexes [39]. As described in section 3, we use two kinds of kernels for visual-auditory correlation analysis. Specifically, we use the following radial basis function in (12), the polynomial kernel function in (13) and the sigmoid function in (14).
k x; yð Þ ¼ exp − x−yk k 2
γσ2
! ð12Þ
k x; yð Þ ¼ γ x; yh i þ cð Þn ð13Þ
k x; yð Þ ¼ tanh γ x; yh i þ cð Þ ð14Þ
where we choose empirical optimal values of γ=2, σ= 2.4 in (12), γ= 1, c= 1, n=4.2 in (13) and γ=0.6, c= 1.9 in (14), and we choose empirical optimal values of combination weights η= (0.35,0.2, 0.45) in (11).
4.2 Performance comparison results
To evaluate the efficacy of the proposed algorithm, we compare the image-audio retrieval performance of the proposed MKVARL approach with PCA [25], CCA [17] and KCCA [14] methods. When users submit an image query example which is in the training set, relevant audio clips are retrieved and returned, and vice versa. In our experiments, if a returned result and the query example are in the same semantic category, it is regarded as a correct result. And the precision performance is defined as the percentage of correctly retrieved samples in the top-k-returned results.
Figure 2 shows the Mean Average Precision (MAP) of different algorithms and Fig. 3 shows the comparison results of recall ratio. In Figs. 2 and 3, the MAP and the recall values are the average results of 10 times queries in each semantic category, including 5 times of querying image with audio examples and 5 times of querying audio with image examples. And the query examples are randomly selected. From Figs. 1 and 2 we can see that the performances of CCA, KCCA and MKVARL methods are much better than the performance of the PCA.
Meanwhile the KCCA outperforms CCA, while our proposed MKVARL algorithm gains the best performance. Above results are obtained probably because that: (1) the computing process of the projection vectors of CCA,KCCA and MKVARL is based on potential relevance between image features and audio features, it can better reflect the high-level semantics; (2) the use of kernel function in KCCA makes it more appropriate for nonlinear correlation; (3) Different kernels correspond to different notions of similarity between two data samples. In particular, in a high dimensional feature space, it is not optimal to choose one kernel for all the datasets. A single type of kernel function may fail to exploit the potential of all correlations, meanwhile multiple types kernel functions could better explore the potential of all correlations,
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which validates the importance of the proposed method. Our approach generally returns more relevant results and it verifies the effectiveness of the proposed method.
Figure 4 is a specific example of image-audio retrieval. The query example is a 5-s audio clip in the violin category. We compute the similarity score between the query audio and the images in database, and return the top-15 relevant images. The numbers below the returned images are the correlation values between the images and the audio query example. It can be seen from Fig. 4 that among the top 15 returned results there are 12 violin images.
4.3 Performance evaluation of new media objects
To test image-audio retrieval performance when query examples are out of training set, we first use the method in our previous work to estimate its coordinates in the IVA-Subspace [39], and
Fig. 3 Recall performance comparison results of image-audio retrieval
Fig. 2 MAP performance comparison results of image-audio retrieval
9178 Multimed Tools Appl (2016) 75:9169–9184
then cosine distance metric to compute the cross-media correlation scores. Figures 5 and 6 are the experiment results with new query examples, including querying image by new audio and querying audio by new image. From Figs. 5 and 6 we can have the similar observation that: the overall retrieval performance with new multimedia data is good. When querying image by an
Fig. 5 Querying image by new audio
Fig. 4 An example of image-audio retrieval
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example of new audio, there are 8.58 correct results in top 20 returns on average. The performance of querying audio by new image is similar to that of querying image by new audio.
5 Conclusions
Different from most existing multimedia representation learning methods, this paper proposes multiple kernel visual-auditory representation learning framework, which learns general rep- resentation model from visual and auditory feature space by explicitly learning statistical cross- media correlations from high-dimensional kernel spaces. Besides, we design distance metric learning strategy in the mutual subspace.
The performance of our approach is tested with cross- media retrieval between image and audio data. Experiments and comparisons verify the validity, superiority and applicability of our approach from different aspects. The main limitation is that the size of image-audio database is comparatively small (lots of web image galleries are not usable because it is difficult to find suited audios). Future work includes further study on large-scale social media dataset.
Acknowledgments This research is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.61003127, No. 61373109, No.61440016) and the China Scholarship Council (201508420248).
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Fig. 6 Querying audio by new image
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Framework of The Proposed MKVARL Method |
Framework of The Proposed MKVARL Method