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Instructions:
Identifying Leadership as The Process of Influence
Vroom and Jago (2007) argue that most definitions identify leadership as the process
of influence where a leader has one or more followers. In their own definition, Vroom
and Jago (2007) state leadership is a process of motivating people to work together
collaboratively for accomplishment of great things. Specifically:
o Leadership is a process, not a property of a person.
o The process involves a particular form of influence called motivating.
o The nature of the incentives, extrinsic or intrinsic, is not part of the definition.
o The consequence of the influence is collaboration in pursuit of a common goal.
o The “great things” are in the minds of both leader and followers and are not
necessarily viewed as desirable by all other parties.
Debate between person and situation has moved to contingency theories that are
capable of dealing both with differences in situations and with differences in leaders.
Practically, contingency theories focus research into the types of people and behaviors
that are effective in different situations. Vroom and Jago (2007) point to three distinct
roles that situational variables play in the leadership process:
o Organizational effectiveness (often taken to be an indication of its leadership) is
affected by situational factors not under leader control.
o Situations shape how leaders behave.
o Situations influence the consequences of leader behavior.
Vroom and Jago (2007) conclude that viewing leadership in purely dispositional or
purely situational terms is to miss a major portion of the phenomenon. Rather, the
task confronting contingency theorists is to understand the key behaviors and
contextual variables involved in this process.
Using Think-Aloud Pair Problem Solving (TAPPS) collaborative groups of two will
identify and define key points of the article.
With consideration to the article, The role of the situation in leadership, briefly
summarize the authors’ definition of leadership …
the role of situation in leadership …
and your perspective of the definition of leadership with regards to the article.
View selected clips from Twelve O’clock High and identify situational characteristics.
Consider the following scenes: Relieved of Command (4:49), Scared Stiff (2:23), Back
to Fundamentals (2:46), Davenports Return (4:15), The Gamble (3:53), No Confidence
(4:24), and Iron Tailed (3:02).
If time permits and using Think-Aloud Pair Problem Solving (TAPPS) collaborative
groups of two will identify and relate a characteristic of that leader to a point of
discussion in the article.
Follow-up
What is contingency theory?
What are the key elements of situation in leadership?
Using a character in Twelve O’clock High, relate a characteristic of that leader to a
point of discussion in the article, The role of the situation in leadership. Comment in
200 to 400 words.
Whole Task Objectives Follow-up
How might your ability to address self management be affected by situation?
Toolbox Situation
References
Vroom, V. H., & Jago, A. G. (2007). The role of the situation in leadership. American
Psychologist, 62, 17–24.
Q&A
Address any issues from prior session.
Objective 13.1
Describe the concept of staying calm and focused in times of stress.
Whole Task Objective
Describe factors for controlling self management and learning.
Relevancy
In times of stress, many of us revert to self-defeating or antisocial thoughts and
behaviors. Perhaps these old patterns worked in the past, allowing us to escape
responsibility for our problems or shift the burden of our challenges onto others.
Many of us have used intimidation, aggression, or unreasonable anger to resolve
disputes, forcing the other party to back down. At other times, we may have dismissed
those with whom we had differences as “stupid” or incapable of understanding “what
the real world is like.” Such behavior allows us to avoid the hard work of trying to
understand — not necessarily agree with — others’ points of view. While some of these
thoughts and behaviors may get us immediate satisfaction, in the long-term, they can
alienate others or serve to reinforce unfavorable perceptions that others may have,
causing us to feel more stress and greater frustration.
Resilient individuals, however, know how to manage stress and have the skills
necessary to bounce back from adversity. They understand that there are skills and
techniques that can help them to remain calm and focused during times of stress.
Pretest
What does “listening” to your body suggest to you?
Activity
Many of us have forgotten how to listen to our bodies. Many of us learned to ignore
pain and discomfort by the time we got out of kindergarten. We would not dare to cry
in front of our teammates if we scraped our knee playing Little League baseball or
softball. Military training heightens the ability to ignore the signals that our bodies
send us that we are in distress. This effect is compounded for female soldiers because
they have the added pressure of having to prove themselves in an often male-
dominated institutional structure.
What would you imagine the consequences are for continually ignoring these cues?
The human body is a remarkable in its construction. If you cut your arm, you bleed,
and your nervous system sends pain messages to the brain alerting it that there is a
problem. Over time, however, our brains can be trained to ignore these messages. We
repeatedly tell ourselves, “It doesn’t hurt that much,” “It’s only a scratch,” or “If I
ignore it, it’ll go away,” and by doing so, we may be successful in sublimating our
immediate pain. The human body, however, was not designed to tolerate such
physical strain without consequence. When pain or stress in one area of the body is
ignored, and its causes are not addressed, the body may react to that constant strain
with pain or discomfort elsewhere. Some people may, for example, develop tension
headaches, while others may develop stomach aches or high blood pressure. Many
veterans speak of feeling fine one minute and experiencing severe mental or physical
pain the next. In many cases, these veterans have been suppressing the stress that
their bodies have experienced for so long, that when it finally escapes their control,
they are surprised and shocked by its intensity. If we learn to listen to our bodies, we
can identify stress early on, deal with its causes, and prevent the stress from
escalating. We can also learn to reduce the amount of stress that we endure and
develop skills to return our body to a state of homeostasis, or balance.
Do you recall the messages that you learned as a child about “listening” to your body?
What were they?
What messages have you learned as an adult about ignoring your body?
Follow-up:
In your own words, discuss how your beliefs about ignoring your body impact your
ability to cope with stress?
Do you believe that by changing your beliefs about listening to your body you can be
more resilient and better able to cope with stress? Rate your level of belief from 0 to
100, 0 being no belief, and 100 being total belief.
How could your beliefs be made more realistic?
Whole Task Objectives Follow-up
How might staying focused during a stressful situation relate to controlling self
management and learning?
13.2 Objective
Describe the concepts of diaphragmatic breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and
alternate nostril breathing.
Whole Task Objective
Describe factors for controlling self management and learning.
Relevancy
By learning to breathe correctly we can learn to reduce our arousal reaction to stress
and thus break the cycle of arousal, vigilance and increased stress. By learning this
simple skill we deal more effectively with the stresses that confront us in our daily
lives.
Activity
Breathing is a simple act, a basic, life-sustaining behavior. It is involuntary and thus
often goes unnoticed. Breathe in, breathe out. Unfortunately, most of us don’t use our
lungs to their greatest advantage. Some of us also become alarmed by changes in our
breathing, creating a feedback loop that adds to existing stress and increases
breathing irregularities. For example, the stress of a strange environment or
unfamiliar company may provoke changes in breathing and heart rate. If we respond
to such stress reactions with distress, we are more likely to perceive an increased level
of threat to our wellbeing resulting in a cycle of stress.
Before we begin our activity, we need to understand the concept of Subjective Units
of Distress (SUDS). One means of understanding our level of stress and
communicating it to others is by developing our own personal SUDS. The scale has 11
points, from 0 to 10, with 0 being the lowest level of distress and 10 being the highest.
Each of us experiences stress in different ways, so what may be a 7 for you, may be a 4
for someone else — hence the term, subjective. If you are a level of 5 or higher, you
may want to discuss stress management techniques with a healthcare professional
and consider beginning a regular exercise routine, as described in the previous
sections. Below is an example and can be used as a guide to develop your own scale.
0 Being completely relaxed and experiencing no stress, maybe even being asleep.
1 Being very relaxed and dozing off.
2 Being awake but feeling no stress.
3 Feeling a bit of tension, but I am focused.
4 Feeling mild stress, anxious, apprehensive, and noticing tension in the body.
5 Stress is unpleasant, but tolerable. Noticing increased tension in the body. Still able
to think clearly.
6 Feeling moderate stress and unpleasantness. Feelings of worry and apprehension
are increasing,
7 Body tension is now substantial and unpleasant with high levels of fear, anxiety and
worry, but still can think clearly.
8 Feeling a great deal of distress with high levels of anxiety and fear. I will have a hard
time tolerating this level of stress for a long time.
9 The stress is so great that it is impacting my thinking. High levels of tension in the
body.
10 Extreme stress, being completely filled with panic and extreme tension in the body.
The worst possible fear and anxiety that you could imagine.
Figure 13.2a. Sample scale.
SUDS scores are typically rated on a scale of 0 to 10. 0 is being totally relaxed and 10
being at the other extreme, which can be totally stressed or enraged. Unfortunately,
for many veterans they begin to view being at a 5 or 6 as being “normal”, so going to a
10 is certainly within reach.
Consider using a Relaxation Log, such as that shown in Figure 13.2b, noting the date of
the activity, initial SUDS level, the focal point of the physical stress you are feeling, the
relaxation skill you used, the length of time you used the relaxation skill, and the
subsequent SUDS level.
Figure 13.2b. Sample SUDS worksheet.
What body cues do you have that tell you that you are under stress?
What is your SUDS score right now? (0 – 10) _____________
What are your bodily sensations when you are this level?
Diaphragmatic Breathing. The thoracic diaphragm is the sheet of muscle below the rib
cage, which serves as a primary muscular support for breathing function. While all of
us use our diaphragmatic muscle when breathing, few of us our consciously aware of
its activity, and even fewer focus on developing the diaphragm through breathing
exercises. When using your diaphragmatic muscle to its greatest advantage, the area of
the abdomen directly beneath the rib cage flexes visibly, drawing air into the lungs.
This is in contrast to shallow breathing, in which the muscles around the rib cage to
flex more prominently. Infants and young children deeply flex their diaphragmatic
muscles when breathing, while many adults visibly flex the muscles around the chest.
While flexing the rib cage may cut a more imposing figure, it is not the most efficient
way to draw air into the lungs.
During aerobic activity, the body relies on the diaphragm to ensure that adequate
oxygen is taken into the lungs. Simple breathing exercises can help you focus on
diaphragmatic breathing and the development of this essential muscle. To practice
diaphragmatic breathing, simply get comfortable in your chair or lie on the floor and
put one hand on your chest and the other on your upper abdomen. As you breathe,
focus on allowing your thoracic cavity to expand and causing the hand on your
abdomen to move upward. The movement of your rib cage should be minimal and the
hand on your chest should remain relatively still. Do this for 2 minutes.
What is your SUDS level now? (0 – 10) _____________
What changes have you noticed in your body?
Alternate Nostril Breathing. This is yogic breathing technique wherein the
practitioner inhales through one nostril and exhales through the other. To practice
alternate nostril breathing, take your thumb and index finger and place your thumb
on one nostril, closing it. Next, breathe in though the open nostril. When you have
taken in a full breath, release your thumb from the nostril. Close the other nostril with
your index finger, and exhale. Do this slowly 5 times. Reverse the process, closing the
opposite nostril with your index finger and inhaling, then closing the other nostril with
your thumb and exhaling. Do this slowly 5 times.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation. Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) is another
technique that can help encourage awareness of the body. It is a skill that can be used
in a variety of situations to promote relaxation. It is also a practical example of
“classical conditioning” or “associative learning,” where two unrelated things become
associated in a person’s mind. In PMR, the word, “relax,” becomes associated with the
process of muscle relaxation; over time, the word itself can become a trigger for the
process of relaxation. During the PMR training process, the practitioner moves
through the entire body tensing and relaxing all of the major muscle groups. It is not
advisable to tense any injured areas of the body; instead, imagine those areas tensing
and relaxing.
This process begins, as with the earlier relaxation activities, with a focus on breathing.
Practice diaphragmatic breathing, inhaling and exhaling. Allow yourself to close your
eyes as you focus on your breathing. Each time you exhale, imagine yourself saying the
word, “relax.”
Start with your feet and work your way up to the top of your head. Tense your feet,
then focus on the word, “relax,” and let go of the tension in your feet. Do the same for
your calf muscles, then the muscles in your thighs. Continue this process with every
muscle group, until you reach the muscles in your forehead, always focusing on the
word “relax” when letting go of the tension.
Once you have gone through your entire body using the PMR technique, imagine
yourself in a relaxing, calm place. It can be on an island on a beach, or in the
mountains by a lake or a stream. It can be someplace that you’ve been before or
someplace that you’ve seen pictures of, or someplace that you would like to go. This
exercise will probably require about 15-20 minutes.
What is your SUDS level now? (0 – 10) _____________
What body sensations do you have at this level?
Using Think-Aloud Pair Problem Solving (TAPPS) collaborative groups of two will
discuss methods and beliefs for improving skills in listening to your body.
What are your results?
Follow-up:
How much were you able to reduce your SUDS?
How much do you believe that practicing these skills will give you greater control over
your body’s reaction to stress? Rate your level of belief from 0 to 100, 0 being no belief,
and 100 being total belief.
How committed are you to using these skills to cope with stress and increase your
resilience? Rate your level of commitment from 0 to 100, 0 being no commitment, and
100 being total commitment.
Practice makes perfect; consider the following:
o Refer to Appendix C: Relaxation Practice Log.
o Keep daily SUDS log until your SUDS level is reduced to a 2 with some
consistency.
o Practice diaphragmatic breathing 4 times a day (8 minutes).
o Practice Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) and guided imagery 2 times a day,
but especially at bedtime.
o Use alternate nostril breathing.
Whole Task Objectives Follow-up
How might controlled breathing and muscle relaxation relate to self management and
learning?
Toolbox: Diaphragmatic breathing
Imagery training Progressive Muscle Relaxation Alternate Nostril Breathing SUDS
Q&A
Address any issues from prior session.
14.1 Objective
Discuss the concept of learning style.
Whole Task Objective
RUBRIC |
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Excellent Quality 95-100%
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Introduction
45-41 points The background and significance of the problem and a clear statement of the research purpose is provided. The search history is mentioned. |
Literature Support 91-84 points The background and significance of the problem and a clear statement of the research purpose is provided. The search history is mentioned. |
Methodology 58-53 points Content is well-organized with headings for each slide and bulleted lists to group related material as needed. Use of font, color, graphics, effects, etc. to enhance readability and presentation content is excellent. Length requirements of 10 slides/pages or less is met. |
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Average Score 50-85% |
40-38 points More depth/detail for the background and significance is needed, or the research detail is not clear. No search history information is provided. |
83-76 points Review of relevant theoretical literature is evident, but there is little integration of studies into concepts related to problem. Review is partially focused and organized. Supporting and opposing research are included. Summary of information presented is included. Conclusion may not contain a biblical integration. |
52-49 points Content is somewhat organized, but no structure is apparent. The use of font, color, graphics, effects, etc. is occasionally detracting to the presentation content. Length requirements may not be met. |
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Poor Quality 0-45% |
37-1 points The background and/or significance are missing. No search history information is provided. |
75-1 points Review of relevant theoretical literature is evident, but there is no integration of studies into concepts related to problem. Review is partially focused and organized. Supporting and opposing research are not included in the summary of information presented. Conclusion does not contain a biblical integration. |
48-1 points There is no clear or logical organizational structure. No logical sequence is apparent. The use of font, color, graphics, effects etc. is often detracting to the presentation content. Length requirements may not be met |
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Identifying Leadership as The Process of Influence |
Identifying Leadership as The Process of Influence