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Symbolic Consumption of Sport Participation
Symbolic value of sport participation As an antecedent of consumer purchasing behavior, product value constitutes the foundation of all marketing activities (Holbrook, 1994). Despite being somewhat diverse, scholarly perspectives on product value have largely fallen into three areas: functional (utilitarian) value, symbolic value, and hedonic (experiential) value.
As summarized in Table 1, functional value refers to the objective and instrumental usefulness of product attributes (e.g. durability, quantity, and sturdiness) that can solve practical and task- related problems (Bhat & Reddy, 1998; Mathews, Ambroise, & Brignier, 2009; Park, Jaworski, & Maclnnis, 1986; Smith & Colgate, 2007).
Scholars have drawn the conceptual line between hedonic and symbolic value in two primary ways. One research stream conceptualizes symbolic value as a component of hedonic value because both are intangible and subject to personal interpretation (e.g. Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982).
Another research stream, consisting primarily of branding studies, further separates symbolic value from the hedonic category and considers it an independent dimension of product value (e.g. Keller, 1993; Mathews et al., 2009; Park et al., 1986; Smith & Colgate, 2007). Specifically, hedonic value emphasizes intrinsic product attributes that have multi-sensory and affective benefits (e.g. pleasure, emotion, and feeling stimulation), whereas symbolic
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value involves extrinsic social meanings that people attach to products to fulfill their per- sonal and social needs (e.g. self-expression and outer-directed self-esteem) (Keller, 1993; Park et al., 1986; Smith & Colgate, 2007).
Generally, effective symbols possess at least three characteristics: being noticeable by others, being able to evoke certain specifiable reactions from others, and being able to be controlled by individuals (Swann, 1983). Nowadays, sport participation continues to garner tremendous consumer attention, as evidenced by all-pervasive sport products and increasingly health-conscious sport participants around the world. For example, 41% of European Union citizens (European Commission, 2014), 56% of the US
Table 1. Summarized literature on understanding the dimension of product value. Author Dimensions Conceptualization
Bhat and Reddy (1998) Functional value Related to specific and practical consumption problems
Symbolic value Related to self-image and social identification Hirschman and Holbrook (1982) Utilitarian value Tangible benefits of goods and services
Hedonic value Multi-sensory, fantasy, and emotive aspects of one’s experience with products
Keller (1993) Functional benefits Intrinsic advantages of product or service consumption; usually correspond to product- related attributes
Experiential benefits Feelings associated with using a product or service; usually correspond to product- related attributes;
Symbolic benefits Related to underlying needs for social approval or personal expression and outer-directed self-esteem; extrinsic advantages of product or service consumption; usually correspond to non-product-related attributes
Levy (1959) Functional value What products can do Symbolic value What products mean
Mathews, Ambroise, and Brignier (2009) Utilitarian value Instrumental (functional, task-related) and related to cognitive evaluation; linked to the notion of product performance and usefulness
Hedonic value Subjective and emotional; related more to fun and entertainment than to task completion
Symbolic value Less product-related than hedonic benefits; includes self-expression, social approval, and self-esteem
Park, Jaworski, and Maclnnis (1986) Functional needs Needs for products that solve consumption- related issues
Symbolic needs Desires for products that fulfill internally generated needs for self-enhancement, role position, group membership, or ego identification
Experiential needs Desires for products that provide sensory pleasure, variety, and/or cognitive stimulation
Smith and Colgate (2007) Functional/ instrumental value
The extent to which a product (good or service) has desired characteristics, is useful, or performs a desired function
Experiential/hedonic value
The extent to which a product creates appropriate experiences, feelings, and emotions for the customer
Symbolic/expressive value
The extent to which customers attach or associate psychological meaning to a product
Cost/sacrifice value The extent to which customers minimize the costs and other sacrifices involved in the purchase, ownership, and use of a product
European Sport Management Quarterly 585
population above the age of 6 (Physical Activity Council, 2016), and 60% of Australians above the age of 15 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015) regularly participate in sport activities. Oftentimes, sport activities communicate positive, neutral, or even negative symbolic meanings that are shaped by activities’ characteristics, mass media, and marketing activities.
Through sport participation, consumers build associations with particular sport activities, often transferring the meaning of those objects to themselves (Gwinner & Eaton, 1999). The tie strength in those symbolic associations could be par- tially controlled by consumer willingness, such as invested money and exposure intensity.
This positive construability at the micro level could reduce the risks of using symbolic products in self-expression (e.g. unpredictable time, meanings, strengths, and costs) and allow participants to be more accurate in building and maintaining connections with sport activities.
Thus, it is reasonable to speculate that participation in sport activities generates symbolic value and could be utilized to express self-image (or self-concept), namely ‘the totality of the individual’s thoughts and feelings having reference to himself as an object’ (Rosenberg, 1979, p. 7).
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Symbolic Consumption of Sport Participation |
Symbolic Consumption of Sport Participation